Tag: danielle kurin

A September 2011 Scientific American reported on a technological breakthrough that allowed anthropologists to construct fossil replicas, including extra-large versions of bones and primate skulls through 3D printing. This ability to reconstruct fossils removed concerns regarding their fragility, making them difficult to work with and study.

In recent years, this 3D printing technology has been used to rebuild the human skeleton. This tool, most widely used in biomedical sciences, allows scientists to make 3D models of any object, such as skeletal remains. The process involves surface scanning of the skeleton using a laser and 3D printing to replicate the bones.

The common practice to recreate bony structures was to create a mold. Researchers covered the skull or other bone structures with liquid rubber to recreate the bone. Still, the model fell short of the original piece between the bubbling and inaccuracies in the reconstruction. Furthermore, this molding used fragile fossils, and researchers risked destroying what researchers wished to study.

The benefit of 3D printing is that researchers do not even need the fossil to make the replicate. Furthermore, this printing process allowed researchers to make as many duplications as required to reproduce the fossil, and these recreations were more accurate than the mold. Moreover, researchers can make the duplicates larger or smaller than the fossil’s size, which has advantages in terms of using these duplicates as research or teaching tools.

In forensics anthropology, which most widely deals with criminal investigation, 3D printing is a part of the process that allows teams to unearth the truth of identifying by creating a model of the skeleton in a humanitarian way. As investigators work through the case, the 3D-printed model offers them a way to work that ensures they do not come in physical contact with the evidence or bone material.

That stated, the uses of 3D printing of the pre-homo sapiens, Lucy, illustrates how this technology has generally improved anthropology. The Lucy specimen was a collection of hundreds of fossilized bones from a pre-human species called Australopithecus afarensis. After discovering Lucy in 1974, researchers determined that her bones dated more than 3.2 million years ago. Based on the fossils, researchers determined that because her skull was small, like a non-hominin ape, and her gait was upright and bipedal (walking on two feet), the mammal was human-like and tree-dwelling.

The discovery was significant because it led scientists to its implications regarding human evolution. However, while an important finding, 60 percent of Lucy’s bones were missing, making it difficult to understand how this pre-homo sapiens species might have appeared.

The 3D printing technology solved the problem of the missing skeleton pieces. Researchers reconstructed the missing parts on the right side of the skeleton by taking digital models of the left side to replicate what the right side of the skeleton might have looked like. In addition, the researchers used other fossilized bones from pre-homo sapiens to reconstruct Lucy’s bones, sizing them down or up to fit Lucy’s skeletal structure.

Outside of research, 3D printing has made research more accessible for professors at New York’s Lehman College. Eric Delson, Ph.D., uses 3D printing to create models of primate skeletons. The technology made it possible to recreate copies of missing bones and ones that failed to fossilize. In this instance, the 3D printed models allowed professors to reconstruct the remains of primates that existed in the distant past. According to Dr. Delson, 3D printing enables researchers to create models of pre-homo sapiens bones lost to decay.

Trepanation, or burr holing, is an ancient practice of drilling a hole in the skull to grant access to the brain. This practice was employed in ancient times to treat head injuries, symptoms associated with illnesses like epilepsy, and mental disorders. Further, it occasionally served ritual or spiritual purposes to remove evil spirits or demons thought to cause various physical and mental illnesses. This practice was carried out using various techniques.

The rectangular intersecting cuts technique was one trepanation method. Ancient surgeons would use sharp tools made of hard rocks like obsidian and flint or metal objects like a tumi knife to cut a section in the skull, exposing the brain. Artifacts such as curved metal knives used for trepanation that archeologists found from burial sites in Peru and skulls discovered with holes in Europe, the Middle East, and Africa are evidence of the practice in ancient times.

Scraping the skull with a sharp object was another common method. Paul Broca, a 19th-century French physician and anatomist, demonstrated this technique using a piece of glass to create an opening in an adult human skull. Although the process was tedious and required rest periods due to hand fatigue, Broca proved that skull scrapping was possible, as it took him less than an hour to open the skull. This technique was prevalent over the ages and continued until the Renaissance era in Italy.

The third technique was to create a circular groove in the skull and remove the corresponding bone disc to access the brain. Another related method used a circular trephine or crown saw, likely an evolution of the former technique. The trephine, a hollow cylinder with a central pin, a crown-shaped blade, and a T-shaped handle for applying rotational force, worked by creating a cylindrical groove in the skull bone, which surgeons could then lift out to create a hole in the skull. The ancient trephine was similar to contemporary versions, including those current researchers use. Its use also allowed for more controlled and precise skull cutting, making it a favored instrument for trepanation throughout history.

The fifth trepanation technique entailed a surgeon drilling multiple small holes in the skull using a drill and removing the bone by chiseling adjacent holes. The holes were typically spaced out around the skull and could vary in size and shape depending on the purpose of the procedure. Many preferred this method to treat various ailments and mental conditions. It was popular in the Middle East, Europe, Africa, and South American countries like Peru.

Although trepanation was widely accepted and exhibited high survival rates in ancient times, it is no longer widely employed in modern brain surgery. Instead, surgeons now use a more advanced procedure called craniotomy.

A craniotomy is а surgical procedure where surgeons create a temporary opening in the skull to remove fluids or relieve pressure. This procedure can help treat neurological conditions like brain tumors, aneurysms (bulges in brain blood vessels), and traumatic brain injury. Before surgery, doctors perform brain scans by analyzing magnetic resonance imaging to see where they need to make the opening. It’s worth noting that in craniotomy, surgeons replace the removed piece of the skull immediately following the completion of the procedure, unlike ancient trepanation methods, which often left the skull open.

Archaeology is the scientific study of human history and prehistory through the excavation and analysis of artifacts, structures, and other physical remains. Written records only provide a limited perspective, which is often biased or incomplete. Archaeology allows archaeologists to uncover the secrets of ancient civilizations and provides evidence for theories about human behavior, cultural evolution, and societal development. Additionally, archaeology gives a voice to the voiceless, shedding light on marginalized groups and forgotten civilizations.

Archaeology is a broad field that encompasses various specializations. Prehistoric archaeology looks at the early human period from the time of the earliest stone tools until the development of writing. Classical archaeology deals with the ancient Mediterranean world, including Greece and Rome. There is also historical archaeology, which studies the material evidence of modern eras using historical records. Other branches of archaeology include biblical, underwater, industrial, forensic, and experimental.

Archaeologists employ various methods and techniques to uncover and analyze artifacts and structures. These methods include surveying, excavation, and laboratory analysis.

Surveying is the first step in archaeological research. It involves identifying potential sites through remote sensing techniques such as aerial photography, satellite imagery, and ground-penetrating radar. By examining variations in vegetation or soil color or density, archaeologists can detect buried features and determine where to focus their efforts.

Excavation is the most well-known aspect of archaeology. It involves carefully digging and removing soil layers to uncover artifacts, structures, and other archaeological remains. The excavated materials are then meticulously recorded, photographed, and preserved for further analysis.

Archaeologists utilize various excavation techniques to uncover and analyze artifacts and structures. These techniques include the Wheeler box-grid, open-area excavation, and step trench, and each plays a crucial role in uncovering and understanding the archaeological record. The choice of technique depends on site’s size and complexity as well as the researchers’ objectives.

The Wheeler box grid is a method that involves dividing the excavation site into a grid pattern using strings and stakes. Each square within the grid, referred to as a “box,” is excavated individually, allowing for precise documentation of artifacts and features within each unit. This technique facilitates understanding spatial relationships and the site’s stratigraphic sequence.

On the other hand, open-area excavation involves excavating an entire site without any predefined grid or box system. This method is beneficial when dealing with larger sites or with complex structures. It allows for a more holistic approach to excavation, focusing on the overall layout and relationships between various features.

Step trench excavation involves creating a series of steps or terraces within the excavation area. This technique is commonly employed when dealing with deep or stratified deposits. By creating these steps, archaeologists can work in manageable sections while maintaining a clear vertical profile of the layers and structures present.

Technology has significantly revolutionized archaeology, enhancing scientists’ ability to explore and analyze archaeological sites. Several vital advances have emerged. Remote sensing techniques, such as aerial and satellite imaging using LiDAR, enable the detection of subtle variations in terrain and vegetation, uncovering hidden features and providing comprehensive views of landscapes.

Drone technology enables scientists to map and analyze spatial data, identify patterns, and understand site contexts. This aids in making informed decisions about excavation strategies and comprehending the relationships between elements within a site.

Advanced imaging technologies, like CT and laser scanning, enable the creation of detailed 3D models. These models offer accurate virtual representations of artifacts, structures, and entire sites, allowing for study, sharing, and preservation without handling or disturbing the originals. DNA analysis has also transformed the study of ancient human remains. It reveals insights about genetic ancestry, migration patterns, and disease prevalence among past populations.

Archaeology continues to make significant contributions to unraveling human history and cultural evolution. These technological advances can only accelerate the scientific possibilities of deepening our understanding of the past.

An assistant professor at the University of California, Santa Barbara, Danielle Kurin holds a BA in anthropology and Hispanic studies from Bryn Mawr and an MA and PhD in anthropology from Vanderbilt University. In addition to her academic duties, Danielle Kurin is the co-director of the Andahuaylas Bioarchaeology Project in Peru.

Ms. Kurin and her research team discovered 32 fossils from the Late Intermediate Period in Peru’s Andahuaylas province. The excavation of burial caves revealed 45 instances of trepanation. The period, specifically CE 1000 to 1250, followed the collapse of the Andahuaylas, an empire that prospered from CE 600 to 1000. Considering the challenges and trauma that might have come with the empire’s collapse, it makes sense that the medical practitioners of the time resorted to trepanation, which involves drilling or scraping the skull to treat head injuries and other ailments.

Some individuals that underwent trepanation healed. This can be deduced from finger-like bone projections that are essentially bone growths after cranial surgery. Others suffered cranial fractures from the procedure, and some died. Multiple holes of various depths in some skulls suggest that the subjects’ bodies were studied after their deaths. Healers and medical students of the era experimented with them to learn how to drill to the deepest depth without disturbing the brain. Evidence of topically applied medical herbs confirms that the cranial surgery procedures were solely treatment efforts, not a from of torture. All the subjects are adult males, as the ancient culture’s laws prevented women and children from undergoing cranial surgery.

An assistant professor at the University of California, Danielle Kurin, holds several degrees in anthropology. In addition to her work as an anthropology professor and researcher, Danielle Kurin enjoys spending time with her dog and making pottery.

Handbuilding, one of the oldest known methods of making pottery, is a technique that creates forms without using a pottery wheel. Before the invention of pottery wheels, potters could only create ceramic artwork using only their hands. Although potters can now form clay in advanced ways thanks to the invention of pottery wheels, many potters still consider handbuilding a unique method of creating forms.

Although it seems to be a simple pottery technique, handbuilding takes a specific set of skills to master, for example, the three handbuilding methods of pinching, coiling, and slab building. To make a pinched pot, a potter takes a ball of clay and forms the shape they want out of it by pressing the ball into the center of the ball. Coiling involves taking rolled-up strips of clay and stacking them up to form the desired shape. In slab building, a potter rolls out flat slabs of clay and joins them to create angular or box-shaped designs.

Danielle Kurin earned a bachelor’s degree in anthropology & Hispanic studies from Bryn Mawr College in 2005, after which she advanced her studies at Vanderbilt University to earn a master’s degree and PhD in the same field. During her postgraduate studies, Danielle Kurin participated in fieldwork in several archaeological sites in Peru. She has numerous academic publications, including those covering her work on cranial surgery in ancient Peru.

Despite the advances in medical technologies and clinical practice, cranial surgery continues to be a complicated procedure. Yet nearly 2,000 years ago, early Peruvian neurosurgeons were already performing trepanation, a surgical procedure which involves removing small portions of a patient’s skull to treat injuries.

Several archaeological findings suggest that the premodern neurosurgeons had tremendous success rates with their operations. So much that the survival rate was around 80 percent during the Incan era. This is nearly twice the survival rates of modern American neurosurgeons (50 percent) during the American Civil War some 400 years later.

Unlike modern cranial surgical procedures that are performed in conjunction with antibiotics and anesthesia, ancient Peruvian surgeons managed the patient’s pain using maize beer along with wild plants, such as coca and wild tobacco. They used natural antiseptics like balsam and saponin to control the spread of infection.

While teaching archaeology at the University of California, Santa Barbara from 2013 to 2022, Danielle Kurin, PhD, focused her research efforts on the ancient peoples of the central Andes. Among Danielle Kurin’s abiding interests is ancient civilizations spanning what is today Peru and Bolivia.

As explored in a 2015 Smithsonian article, one of the most enduring legacies of the Inca Empire was its network of highways, which spanned a pair of main arteries and numerous side routes. The impetus of this system, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, was the Incan leader Huayna Capac. While he ruled from the high altitude capital of Cusco, he preferred the balmier climes near the equator, and ordered the building of Quito as a second capital.

With more than a thousand rugged miles to traverse, Huayna Capac marshaled the efforts of able-bodied men from communities along the route. He was actually expanding and improving a narrow roadway, the Quapaq Nan, that had served communities for centuries. The completed highway, with guest houses along the way, was described as being flat and straight, to a point where 16th-century Spanish traveler Agustin de Zarate noted that “a cart could be rolled along it.” With this highway finished, Huayna Capac promptly ordered that a similar route be built along the coast.

These projects represented the apex of Inca culture, and at the time of Huayna Capac’s passing in 1527 he was still trying to incorporate northern regions within an expanding empire. Unfortunately, a civil war followed, with conquistadors in 1532 introducing a panoply of diseases that reduced the indigenous Andean population by half. Despite the many upheavals, though, the paving stones continue to mark this centuries-old road system that visitors can traverse to this day.

A former assistant professor and tenured associate professor at the University of California, Santa Barbara, Danielle Kurin, PhD, possesses extensive experience in the study of the indigenous people of Latin America. Dr. Danielle Kurin is a member of the Society for American Archaeology (SAA), an organization that advances the field of archaeology.

The SAA supports research in Latin America through the H. and T. King Grant for Precolumbian Archaeology, which may help researchers unearth answers to questions in Latin American culture and history. The King Grant is for field research, laboratory work, collection study, and the compilation and analysis of data sets.

Those interested in applying for the grant must have a degree in archaeology or a related field. Further, senior scholars or early-career archaeologists/scholars who have earned a degree in the past five years may have an advantage in receiving the grant. Learn more about the King Grant and applications for the grant at http://www.saa.org.

Danielle Kurin holds a PhD in anthropology and served as an assistant professor and then tenured associate professor of bioarchaeology at the University of California, Santa Barbara Department of Anthropology. Aside from teaching anthropology, Dr. Danielle Kurin also engages in field and laboratory analysis of bones from ancient human remains using a variety of techniques.

Ancient DNA, also referred to as aDNA, helps researchers answer important questions regarding the origin, distribution, and evolutionary changes of pathogens and their diseases. Aside from identifying the presence of pathogens in remains, aDNA study of excavated bones and teeth can help determine the sex of an individual and identify close genetic relatives.

While this may be appealing for the purpose of historical studies, contamination of human and pathogen DNA in materials has hindered the widespread adoption of aDNA analysis. Contamination of material can occur in the field, museum, or laboratory, since modern DNA may be accidentally introduced during the process of handling or cleaning. Contamination reduces the amount of aDNA available for analysis in materials, minimizing usable information.

To reduce the chance of errors from contamination during analysis and also maximize usable aDNA, researchers have developed procedures to correct for sample contamination. One such standard practice is the extraction of aDNA under thorough clean-room conditions. This entails the use of filtered air systems, as well as UV and bleach treatment of surfaces. In addition, special adapters are employed to tag molecules present during the time of extraction to help identify and separate additional molecules that may be added accidentally during sequencing steps.

Danielle Kurin, PhD, is a bioarchaeology professor and forensic anthropologist formerly with the University of California, Santa Barbara. With extensive field experience in the Andes region, Danielle Kurin is author of the book The Bioarchaeology of Societal Collapse and Regeneration in Ancient Peru (Springer, 2016).

In the work, Dr. Kurin explores the sudden, catastrophic demise of the Wari Empire a millennia ago, after the Wari had controlled a region the size of contemporary Peru for 500 years. With reasons for this collapse still not fully understood, this decline paved the way for the Inca to come to power around 1400 AD and form a new empire encompassing the “spine of South America.”

Dr. Kurin’s research of hundreds of skeletons reveals links between the last remaining populations of imperial Wari and the Chanka society that emerged in its wake. Unlike the Wari, the Chanka did not create elaborate cities or develop major commercial networks and written systems. In addition, they left behind relatively few goods and tools as evidence of their society.

As Dr. Kurin describes it, “prehistoric state fragmentation” of the Wari led to unprecedented genocidal attacks, displacement, and mass migrations. With community health impacted, individual life spans were reduced and access to clean water and nutritious food became less equally distributed.

At the same time, the Chanka began to display remarkable societal resilience mechanisms. These included trepanation medical procedures, new clan-like social formations, and religious practices centered on the worship of mummified ancestor-chief bodies. The archeological record reveals this upheaval and regeneration process in a novel way.