Danielle Kurin

John “Jack” Cantin went missing in a mudslide that swept through Montecito, California, in 2018. Three years later, a team of researchers from the University of California, Santa Barbara, used forensic anthropology and bioarchaeology to help Jack’s mother recover her son’s body. Forensic anthropology is a part of disaster victim identification (DVI) after disastrous events.

A December 2019 article published in Forensic Sciences Research defines a disaster as a phenomenon, natural or man-made, that causes a severe disruption of a community. This phenomenon usually culminates in losses to the economic, environmental, material, and human ecosystem.

The impacts are so powerful that they remove the ability of the community to cope. Furthermore, whether an event is determined a disaster is based on jurisdiction, with one jurisdiction defining a disaster with as little as two fatalities and another culminating in 10 fatalities. Disaster victim identification is an integral part of these events and disaster response.

One of the best-known disasters of the 21st century was the September 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center, when two passenger airlines flew into the north and south towers. The buildings collapsed after two hours, and the civilians, first responders, and emergency personnel inside perished. Human remains were fragmented, burned, and blended, complicating identification. Forensic anthropologists worked with fingerprint examiners, X-ray technicians, forensic odontologists (dentists), DNA analysts, medicolegal investigators, and volunteers to identify victims.

The Black Saturday bushfires in Victoria, Australia, on February 7, 2009, was another example of how forensic anthropologists worked with specialists from other DVI fields. The region experienced extreme heat and strong winds, resulting in 300 bushfires and 173 fatalities. Faulty power lines, lightning strikes, and arsonists caused the fires to be so intense that extinguishing the flames took six weeks. Recovering the bodies took weeks. The coroner enlisted a team of forensic pathologists, forensic anthropologists, odontologists, radiologists, and fingerprint specialists from the Victoria Institute of Forensic Medicine. Three months after the disaster, the team formally identified the deceased.

In 2015, a vintage Hawker Hunter jet crashed during an air show in West Sussex, UK, killing 11 people. Authorities had to comb a wide area to recover over 1,200 body parts. By the time of recovery, the remains had decomposed considerably. The authorities enlisted forensic anthropologists and archaeologists to assist in the investigation. Identifying the victims took six weeks.

In November 2015, 130 people were killed in Paris after groups of men launched six attacks. Authorities recovered bodies and approximately 90 body commingled body parts. The authorities had little experience in dealing with an event of this magnitude. In addition to multiple examinations, a team of specialists that included forensic pathologists participated in re-assessing the body parts. Identifying the victims took six months.

In February 2019, a Paris fire that broke out in the late hours of February 5 ended with 10 fatalities and an additional 40 people being injured. A fire authorities believed to be set intentionally it burned through several floors. In the search for bodies, authorities recovered 85 fragmented and charred bodies and body parts. This effort was done under the supervision of forensic anthropologists and odontologists. It took the team, in collaboration with the DVI unit, four days to identify victims through DNA analysis.

In all these investigations, forensic anthropologists helped with identifications at the disaster sites, assisted coroners in determining whether remains were human, determined causes of death, and provided biological profiles, such as age, sex, and stature.

Danielle Kurin studied anthropology and is an assistant professor at the University of California at Santa Barbara. She is based in California and Peru and runs the Phillip Walker Bioarchaeology Lab. At her leisure, Danielle Kurin enjoys making pottery and being with her dog.

Dogs are man’s best friend, and a doghouse is a place of comfort and shelter for them. However, you must build a structure tailored to ensure safety and not be a health hazard for your dog. To achieve this, you must use quality materials to construct your doghouse in addition to accurate measurements. With this, your mind can rest easy knowing the doghouse will stand strong in pouring rain, high winds, or thick snow.

The positioning of the doghouse is imperative as you want to shield your dog from heavy rainfall, gushing winds, and intense summer temperatures. It is advisable to build your doghouse in a shaded region protected from the wind, rain, and sun.

Experienced teacher and researcher Danielle Kurin has a PhD in anthropology and is an assistant professor of bioarchaeology at the University of California at Santa Barbara. Also a member of numerous archaeological associations, Danielle Kurin coordinates international field research programs focusing on Andahuaylas, one of Peru’s south-central highland regions. As an assistant professor of bioarchaeology, she teaches anthropology courses on osteology and human evolution.

Evolution entails an organism’s gradual changes in order to specialize and survive. Experts believe evolution results from the interaction of five processes: natural selection, mutation, chromosomal abnormalities, genetic recombination, and reproductive isolation. Humans have evolved over the years till we got to this present stage. Here are some of humanity’s distant ancestors:

Dryopithecus. Archaeologists believe these species were predecessors to both apes and humans. Dryopithecus lived in Europe, India, China, and Africa. Experts believe Dryopithecus were predominantly herbivores.

Australopithecus. This genus succeeded Dryopithecus. Fossilized remains of Australopithecus were first discovered in South Africa in 1924. They had an ape-like body, used stones as weapons, and walked erect. At 4 feet tall and 60 to 80 pounds, they were both shorter and lighter than modern humans.

Homo Erectus. Originally named Pithecanthropus Erectus when the first fossil was found in 1891, experts believe they dwelled in caves. Field researchers have also found evidence of collective hunting and fire use.

Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensis. Over time, Homo Erectus evolved into Homo Sapiens with two identifiable sub-species, namely Homo Sapiens Sapiens and Homo Sapien Neanderthal. Neanderthal cranial capacity was robust, ranging from 1200-1600 cc.

Homo Sapiens Sapiens. This subspecies has reduced jaws, a rounded skull, and the modern man’s chin with a cranial capacity of about 1350 cc. They introduced art, gathered food through hunting, and are the human species in existence today.

Experienced teacher and researcher Danielle Kurin has a PhD in anthropology and is an assistant professor of bioarchaeology at the University of California at Santa Barbara. Also a member of numerous archaeological associations, Danielle Kurin coordinates international field research programs focusing on Andahuaylas, one of Peru’s south-central highland regions. As an assistant professor of bioarchaeology, she teaches anthropology courses on osteology and human evolution.

Evolution entails an organism’s gradual changes in order to specialize and survive. Experts believe evolution results from the interaction of five processes: natural selection, mutation, chromosomal abnormalities, genetic recombination, and reproductive isolation. Humans have evolved over the years till we got to this present stage. Here are some of humanity’s distant ancestors:

Dryopithecus. Archaeologists believe these species were predecessors to both apes and humans. Dryopithecus lived in Europe, India, China, and Africa. Experts believe Dryopithecus were predominantly herbivores.

Australopithecus. This genus succeeded Dryopithecus. Fossilized remains of Australopithecus were first discovered in South Africa in 1924. They had an ape-like body, used stones as weapons, and walked erect. At 4 feet tall and 60 to 80 pounds, they were both shorter and lighter than modern humans.

Homo Erectus. Originally named Pithecanthropus Erectus when the first fossil was found in 1891, experts believe they dwelled in caves. Field researchers have also found evidence of collective hunting and fire use.

Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensis. Over time, Homo Erectus evolved into Homo Sapiens with two identifiable sub-species, namely Homo Sapiens Sapiens and Homo Sapien Neanderthal. Neanderthal cranial capacity was robust, ranging from 1200-1600 cc.

Homo Sapiens Sapiens. This subspecies has reduced jaws, a rounded skull, and the modern man’s chin with a cranial capacity of about 1350 cc. They introduced art, gathered food through hunting, and are the human species in existence today.

A September 2011 Scientific American reported on a technological breakthrough that allowed anthropologists to construct fossil replicas, including extra-large versions of bones and primate skulls through 3D printing. This ability to reconstruct fossils removed concerns regarding their fragility, making them difficult to work with and study.

In recent years, this 3D printing technology has been used to rebuild the human skeleton. This tool, most widely used in biomedical sciences, allows scientists to make 3D models of any object, such as skeletal remains. The process involves surface scanning of the skeleton using a laser and 3D printing to replicate the bones.

The common practice to recreate bony structures was to create a mold. Researchers covered the skull or other bone structures with liquid rubber to recreate the bone. Still, the model fell short of the original piece between the bubbling and inaccuracies in the reconstruction. Furthermore, this molding used fragile fossils, and researchers risked destroying what researchers wished to study.

The benefit of 3D printing is that researchers do not even need the fossil to make the replicate. Furthermore, this printing process allowed researchers to make as many duplications as required to reproduce the fossil, and these recreations were more accurate than the mold. Moreover, researchers can make the duplicates larger or smaller than the fossil’s size, which has advantages in terms of using these duplicates as research or teaching tools.

In forensics anthropology, which most widely deals with criminal investigation, 3D printing is a part of the process that allows teams to unearth the truth of identifying by creating a model of the skeleton in a humanitarian way. As investigators work through the case, the 3D-printed model offers them a way to work that ensures they do not come in physical contact with the evidence or bone material.

That stated, the uses of 3D printing of the pre-homo sapiens, Lucy, illustrates how this technology has generally improved anthropology. The Lucy specimen was a collection of hundreds of fossilized bones from a pre-human species called Australopithecus afarensis. After discovering Lucy in 1974, researchers determined that her bones dated more than 3.2 million years ago. Based on the fossils, researchers determined that because her skull was small, like a non-hominin ape, and her gait was upright and bipedal (walking on two feet), the mammal was human-like and tree-dwelling.

The discovery was significant because it led scientists to its implications regarding human evolution. However, while an important finding, 60 percent of Lucy’s bones were missing, making it difficult to understand how this pre-homo sapiens species might have appeared.

The 3D printing technology solved the problem of the missing skeleton pieces. Researchers reconstructed the missing parts on the right side of the skeleton by taking digital models of the left side to replicate what the right side of the skeleton might have looked like. In addition, the researchers used other fossilized bones from pre-homo sapiens to reconstruct Lucy’s bones, sizing them down or up to fit Lucy’s skeletal structure.

Outside of research, 3D printing has made research more accessible for professors at New York’s Lehman College. Eric Delson, Ph.D., uses 3D printing to create models of primate skeletons. The technology made it possible to recreate copies of missing bones and ones that failed to fossilize. In this instance, the 3D printed models allowed professors to reconstruct the remains of primates that existed in the distant past. According to Dr. Delson, 3D printing enables researchers to create models of pre-homo sapiens bones lost to decay.

Trepanation, or burr holing, is an ancient practice of drilling a hole in the skull to grant access to the brain. This practice was employed in ancient times to treat head injuries, symptoms associated with illnesses like epilepsy, and mental disorders. Further, it occasionally served ritual or spiritual purposes to remove evil spirits or demons thought to cause various physical and mental illnesses. This practice was carried out using various techniques.

The rectangular intersecting cuts technique was one trepanation method. Ancient surgeons would use sharp tools made of hard rocks like obsidian and flint or metal objects like a tumi knife to cut a section in the skull, exposing the brain. Artifacts such as curved metal knives used for trepanation that archeologists found from burial sites in Peru and skulls discovered with holes in Europe, the Middle East, and Africa are evidence of the practice in ancient times.

Scraping the skull with a sharp object was another common method. Paul Broca, a 19th-century French physician and anatomist, demonstrated this technique using a piece of glass to create an opening in an adult human skull. Although the process was tedious and required rest periods due to hand fatigue, Broca proved that skull scrapping was possible, as it took him less than an hour to open the skull. This technique was prevalent over the ages and continued until the Renaissance era in Italy.

The third technique was to create a circular groove in the skull and remove the corresponding bone disc to access the brain. Another related method used a circular trephine or crown saw, likely an evolution of the former technique. The trephine, a hollow cylinder with a central pin, a crown-shaped blade, and a T-shaped handle for applying rotational force, worked by creating a cylindrical groove in the skull bone, which surgeons could then lift out to create a hole in the skull. The ancient trephine was similar to contemporary versions, including those current researchers use. Its use also allowed for more controlled and precise skull cutting, making it a favored instrument for trepanation throughout history.

The fifth trepanation technique entailed a surgeon drilling multiple small holes in the skull using a drill and removing the bone by chiseling adjacent holes. The holes were typically spaced out around the skull and could vary in size and shape depending on the purpose of the procedure. Many preferred this method to treat various ailments and mental conditions. It was popular in the Middle East, Europe, Africa, and South American countries like Peru.

Although trepanation was widely accepted and exhibited high survival rates in ancient times, it is no longer widely employed in modern brain surgery. Instead, surgeons now use a more advanced procedure called craniotomy.

A craniotomy is а surgical procedure where surgeons create a temporary opening in the skull to remove fluids or relieve pressure. This procedure can help treat neurological conditions like brain tumors, aneurysms (bulges in brain blood vessels), and traumatic brain injury. Before surgery, doctors perform brain scans by analyzing magnetic resonance imaging to see where they need to make the opening. It’s worth noting that in craniotomy, surgeons replace the removed piece of the skull immediately following the completion of the procedure, unlike ancient trepanation methods, which often left the skull open.

Archaeology is the scientific study of human history and prehistory through the excavation and analysis of artifacts, structures, and other physical remains. Written records only provide a limited perspective, which is often biased or incomplete. Archaeology allows archaeologists to uncover the secrets of ancient civilizations and provides evidence for theories about human behavior, cultural evolution, and societal development. Additionally, archaeology gives a voice to the voiceless, shedding light on marginalized groups and forgotten civilizations.

Archaeology is a broad field that encompasses various specializations. Prehistoric archaeology looks at the early human period from the time of the earliest stone tools until the development of writing. Classical archaeology deals with the ancient Mediterranean world, including Greece and Rome. There is also historical archaeology, which studies the material evidence of modern eras using historical records. Other branches of archaeology include biblical, underwater, industrial, forensic, and experimental.

Archaeologists employ various methods and techniques to uncover and analyze artifacts and structures. These methods include surveying, excavation, and laboratory analysis.

Surveying is the first step in archaeological research. It involves identifying potential sites through remote sensing techniques such as aerial photography, satellite imagery, and ground-penetrating radar. By examining variations in vegetation or soil color or density, archaeologists can detect buried features and determine where to focus their efforts.

Excavation is the most well-known aspect of archaeology. It involves carefully digging and removing soil layers to uncover artifacts, structures, and other archaeological remains. The excavated materials are then meticulously recorded, photographed, and preserved for further analysis.

Archaeologists utilize various excavation techniques to uncover and analyze artifacts and structures. These techniques include the Wheeler box-grid, open-area excavation, and step trench, and each plays a crucial role in uncovering and understanding the archaeological record. The choice of technique depends on site’s size and complexity as well as the researchers’ objectives.

The Wheeler box grid is a method that involves dividing the excavation site into a grid pattern using strings and stakes. Each square within the grid, referred to as a “box,” is excavated individually, allowing for precise documentation of artifacts and features within each unit. This technique facilitates understanding spatial relationships and the site’s stratigraphic sequence.

On the other hand, open-area excavation involves excavating an entire site without any predefined grid or box system. This method is beneficial when dealing with larger sites or with complex structures. It allows for a more holistic approach to excavation, focusing on the overall layout and relationships between various features.

Step trench excavation involves creating a series of steps or terraces within the excavation area. This technique is commonly employed when dealing with deep or stratified deposits. By creating these steps, archaeologists can work in manageable sections while maintaining a clear vertical profile of the layers and structures present.

Technology has significantly revolutionized archaeology, enhancing scientists’ ability to explore and analyze archaeological sites. Several vital advances have emerged. Remote sensing techniques, such as aerial and satellite imaging using LiDAR, enable the detection of subtle variations in terrain and vegetation, uncovering hidden features and providing comprehensive views of landscapes.

Drone technology enables scientists to map and analyze spatial data, identify patterns, and understand site contexts. This aids in making informed decisions about excavation strategies and comprehending the relationships between elements within a site.

Advanced imaging technologies, like CT and laser scanning, enable the creation of detailed 3D models. These models offer accurate virtual representations of artifacts, structures, and entire sites, allowing for study, sharing, and preservation without handling or disturbing the originals. DNA analysis has also transformed the study of ancient human remains. It reveals insights about genetic ancestry, migration patterns, and disease prevalence among past populations.

Archaeology continues to make significant contributions to unraveling human history and cultural evolution. These technological advances can only accelerate the scientific possibilities of deepening our understanding of the past.

An assistant professor at the University of California, Santa Barbara, Danielle Kurin holds a BA in anthropology and Hispanic studies from Bryn Mawr and an MA and PhD in anthropology from Vanderbilt University. In addition to her academic duties, Danielle Kurin is the co-director of the Andahuaylas Bioarchaeology Project in Peru.

Ms. Kurin and her research team discovered 32 fossils from the Late Intermediate Period in Peru’s Andahuaylas province. The excavation of burial caves revealed 45 instances of trepanation. The period, specifically CE 1000 to 1250, followed the collapse of the Andahuaylas, an empire that prospered from CE 600 to 1000. Considering the challenges and trauma that might have come with the empire’s collapse, it makes sense that the medical practitioners of the time resorted to trepanation, which involves drilling or scraping the skull to treat head injuries and other ailments.

Some individuals that underwent trepanation healed. This can be deduced from finger-like bone projections that are essentially bone growths after cranial surgery. Others suffered cranial fractures from the procedure, and some died. Multiple holes of various depths in some skulls suggest that the subjects’ bodies were studied after their deaths. Healers and medical students of the era experimented with them to learn how to drill to the deepest depth without disturbing the brain. Evidence of topically applied medical herbs confirms that the cranial surgery procedures were solely treatment efforts, not a from of torture. All the subjects are adult males, as the ancient culture’s laws prevented women and children from undergoing cranial surgery.